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This
glossary contains terminology and
definitions for birds in
alphabetical order.
Abdomen
The abdomen is the ventral part of
the bird, homologous to the human
stomach region (also called the
belly). It is comprised of the area
between the vent and the posterior
sternum. A bird will sleep with one
foot tucked into its abdomen.
Alula
The alula is a small joint on the
bird’s wing, similar to the human
thumb, with three or four quill-like
feathers attached. It is a necessity
for low speed flight and
maneuverability. The feathers
function much like the slats on
airplanes by basically increasing
the camber of the wing and as such
help the bird to land and take-off
again.
Alular quills
Alular quills are three feathers
attached to the alula originating
from the base of the primaries. They
are essential for low speed flight
and aid in coordinated landing and
take-off. See also Alula.
Alular quill coverts
Alular quill coverts are smaller
feathers covering the quill of each
flight feather. Each wing has
primary, secondary and tertiary
coverts based on the location of the
feather.
Auricular
The auricular are the soft
loose-webbed feathers on the side of
the bird's head. These feathers
overlap the ear and as such are also
called ear coverts or ear path. They
can sometimes be a different color
depending on the bird species. Birds
do not have ear lobes or external
pinna like humans and other mammals;
however they do have a slight
thickening of the skin around the
ear. See also Ear Patch.
Axillary
The axillary area is located between
the body and the wing of the bird.
In that sense, the axillary is
similar to the human armpit, thus
the other name "wingpit". The area
is formally comprised of the
underside base of the wing,
extending to the ventral wing
lining. Muscles in the area are
heavily involved in flight.
Back
The back is the dorsal part of the
bird between the bases of the wings
and from the neck to the tail. It is
homologous to the human back.
Belly
The belly is the ventral part of the
bird; ie, the area between the
flanks on each side and the crissum
and breast. Flight muscles are
located between the belly and the
breast and most of the bird’s
digestive organs are located in the
belly. See also Abdomen.
Bill
Birds do not have a mouth like
humans, but instead have a bill or a
beak. The bill reveals much about
the bird’s food and lifestyle. The
bill is shaped such that the bird
can optimally consume its food. For
example, a toucan or a parrot has a
strong hooked beak for cracking open
hard nuts and removing tough skin
from certain fruits.
Body
The body is homologous to the human
torso. It is the bird’s main mass
not including its appendages such as
wings, tails and legs. The body
contains all essential organs and a
large part of the bird’s muscle
mass.
Breast
The breast is the upper front part
of a bird. Underneath the breast is
where the major flight muscles are
located which are then attached to
the wings to help the bird lift its
own weight. The muscles are attached
to an enlarged breastplate which is
a skeletal part unique to birds.
Breast band
The breast band is a colored stripe
along the breast. Some birds do not
have this distinction, but some
species do. The colors and abundance
signal to a potential mate how
healthy the individual is and
therefore whether he would be
reproductively successful.
Breast spot
The breast spot is a small area on
the breast that develops only in
some adult birds.. It has a
different color from the rest of the
bird’s plumage.
Cap
The cap is the area on top of the
head of the bird. In some species,
this area is a different color;
while in some cases it has the same
color as the eye area. The color of
the cap helps in differentiation
between similar-looking but
different species.
Cere
The cere is a smooth and featherless
patch of skin located where the beak
attaches to the forehead. It is
often enlarged and brightly colored
such as in parrots and in birds of
prey. It is generally also called
the operculum.
Cheek
The bird cheek is in the same
location as the human cheek, between
the lore, eye, auricular and the
lower mandible.
Chest
The chest is analogous to the breast
area; the frontal area on the body
containing the breastplate and major
flight muscles. See also Breast.
Chin
The chin is the general area of the
face just below the bill. The bird’s
chin does not protrude like a
human’s chin and therefore is less
prominent.
Cloaca
Birds do not have two separate
cavities for excrement and
reproduction like humans do. In
birds, there is one entrance/exit
that suits both functions. It is
also called anus or vent.
Cloacal kiss
This term is analogous to sexual
intercourse in humans. It is used to
describe copulation between birds.
Collar
The collar is similar to the upper
part of the human neck. It is
located at the back of the crown.
Comb
The comb is only found in male birds
and consists of a colored area over
the eye. A well developed comb can
also signal (sexual) health to a
potential mate.
Commissure
The hinge where the mandibles meet
is called the commissure. In most
birds only the lower jaw can move,
just like in humans. Some birds can
move both mandibles, such as
parrots.
Crest
the crests are the tuft on the head
of the bird. They are larger in
males than in females. Although they
increase visibility to predators,
they also increase visibility to a
potential mate. The more elaborate
the crest, the healthier the bird is
and as such females can evaluate a
potential mate by his crest.
Crissum
The crissum are feathers in a
triangular area on the undersurface
of a bird between its vent and the
base of its tail feathers. One can
tell whether a bird is adult or
juvenile by looking at the crissum:
Adult females tend to have
conspicuous dusky edging to most of
the feathers on the crissum; whereas
juvenile females tend to have nearly
pure white crissum.
Crown
The crown is the top part of the
birds head. It can be the same color
as the rest of the bird and holds a
crest or cap, depending on the
species.
Culmen
The culmen is the uppermost central
ridge of the upper mandible. There
is no specific function associated
with it, but males tend to have a
larger culmen than females.
Dihedral
When a bird in flight holds its
wings such that they appear to form
a “V” shape they are called
dihedral. Generally, wings are held
in this state when gliding.
Ear patch
The ear patch is a different term
for auricular. It consists of soft,
loose-webbed feathers on the side of
the bird's head below and behind the
eyes. These feathers overlap the ear
and can be a different color
depending on the bird species. Birds
do not have ear lobes or external
pinna like humans and other mammals;
however they do have a slight
thickening of the skin around the
ear.
Ears
In birds, the ears are the rounded
areas on the bird’s face, also
called facial discs. They are not
homologous to human ears. In certain
cases, the ears can be of different
size and in different places on the
bird’s head, such as in owls. This
allows for exact placement of sounds
and also helps to focus sounds by
funneling them into the ears.
Eye
The eye is the organ of sight. The
bird's eyes are larger compared to
the bird's skull and are, therefore,
proportionally larger than human
eyes. Since the skull is lighter
compared to the human skull
(adjusted for size), the eyes take
up about 15% of the weight.
Eye line
The eye line is the line of feathers
just in front and behind the eyes.
It extends back from the posterior
angle of the eye. This can be a
useful trait used in identification
in the field since it is very
noticeable.
Eye ring
The eye ring can be visualized, in
many different birds, as a pale ring
of feathers encircling the eye. It
is a very narrow ring which may not
be very clear from a greater
distance. Not all birds have an eye
ring, but the blue-headed Vireo is
an example of a bird with one.
Eyebrow
The eyebrow is used as a term to
describe the arch of feathers
growing overtop the bony arch of
each eye in the same approximate
location as the human eye brow. It
is also called supercilium or
superciliary line.
Eyelid
Birds have one upper and one lower
eyelid - the latter being more
moveable. Birds also have a
nictitating membrane between both
eyelids and the cornea. It has its
own lubricating duct equivalent to
the human tear duct to clean and
protect the eye. Thus in total,
birds have three eyelids.
Face
The face is homologous to the human
face. It is the front part of the
head consisting of the bill, eyes,
cheeks and chin.
Facial discs
The facial discs are synonyms for
ears. they are not homologous to
human ears, in birds rather these
are rounded areas on the bird’s
face. In certain cases the ears can
be of different size and in
different places on the bird’s head,
such as in owls. This allows for
exact placement of sounds and also
helps to focus sounds by funneling
them into the ears.
Feet
The feet are located at the terminal
part of the legs, just like in
humans, and most birds have four
toes. The first toe points backwards
while the other three toes point
forward. The second, third and
fourth digits or toes are counted
from the inside of the foot out and
have 2, 3 and 4 phalanges
respectively. Most birds do not have
a fifth toe except for some where it
has evolved into a defensive sput,
such as in the chicken.
Flank
The flank is the lateral area
posterior to the side of the bird’s
body. It extends back the base of
the tail.
Flank stripe
The flank stripe are the differently
colored bands on the flanks. These
can be used to differentiate bird
species as they are quite visible
from a distance.
Flight feathers
The flight feathers are those
located on the wing, and are
collectively called remiges
(singular, remex). Flight feathers
attach to the bones of the wing. The
long stiff feathers are subdivided
into two major groups based on the
location of attachment- the
primaries and secondaries..
Forehead
The forehead is homologous in
location to the human forehead. It
refers to the area above the eyes in
the face of the bird.
Foreneck
The foreneck is similar to the human
throat and is located in the front
of the neck. It is often called
jugulum or throat patch.
Frontal shield
The frontal shield is the area where
the bill extends onto the forehead
of the bird. It is often brightly
colored and is meant to grab the
attention of other birds.
Gape
The gape is a different word for
commissure. it is the hinge where
the mandibles meet. In most birds
only the lower jaw can move, just
like in humans. Some birds can move
both mandibles, such as parrots. See
also Commissure.
Gonys
The gonys is the lowermost ridge on
the lower mandible. The gonys length
is discriminating between different
species and sexes.
Gorget
The gorget is the throat area of the
bird. In this area for the
hummingbird, it contains certain
feathers that change color depending
on the light striking it.
Greater secondary coverts
The greater secondary coverts are
the feathers overlying the bases of
the secondaries. In some birds, the
primary converts are completely
covered by them.
Gular region
The gular region is the area between
the chin and the foreneck. In a
pelican for example, the gular
region is distended.
Head
The head is the upper part of the
body, containing the bill, eyes,
crown, ears and nose. It is
homologous to the human head in
terms of content and location.
Head stripes
The head stripes are the bold,
bright colored lines on the top of
the bird's head for certain species.
This is a useful feature to
discriminate between species.
However, juvenile birds often have
less pronounced stripes than adults
have.
Hindhead
The hindhead is the back portion of
the bird's crown. From this location
certain species adorn elongated
feathers. It is often also called
the occiput.
Hindneck
The hindneck is the back of the
neck, in the same relative location
as in humans. Synonyms for the
hindneck are also nape and collar.
Horns
The horns are paired contour
feathers on top of the head of the
bird. Often they are in bright
colors and distinctive to the
species.
Inner primaries
The inner primaries are a group of
feathers closest to the body on the
wing of the bird. They are generally
covered partially by the
secondaries.
Inner secondaries
The inner secondaries are groups of
secondary feathers located closest
to the body with respect to the
outer secondary coverts.
Inner wing
The inner wing is similar to the
inner arm of a human. It encompasses
the shoulder, the secondaries and
the secondary coverts.
Iris
The iris is the colored part of the
eye, equal to the human iris,
located around the pupil. The iris
does not play a role in actual
vision.
Jugulum
The jugulum is the ventral part of
the neck under the bill. The juculum
and the gular region comprises the
throat. Other words used are
foreneck or throatpatch. In the
pelican the jugulum and gular region
are distended.
Knee
The knee is the joint in the middle
part of the leg, in the same
location as the human knee.. Birds
have strong leg bones and knees to
take-off and land.
Leading edge of wing
The leading edge of the wing is the
first from a frontal position when
the bird is in flight. It is
generally slightly curved and
feathered.
Leg
The legs are limbs used for
supporting the bird, homologous in
function to the human legs..
Proportionally the bird’s legs are
extremely strong in order for it to
be able to land and take off without
getting injured.
Lesser secondary coverts
The lesser secondary coverts are the
relatively short feathers overlying
the median secondary coverts on the
top of the wing. They are located
near the shoulder and can be seen as
the “first row” of feathers on the
bird’s wing. They are also called
marginal coverts and are referred to
as the shoulder.
Lore
The lore is the area under the eye
and above the bill, similar to the
area between the eyes and the nose
in humans. The eye patch starts in
this area for certain bird species.
Lower mandible
The lower mandible is the lower part
of the bill and in many birds, this
is the only part that moves. It is
in function and location similar to
the human’s lower jaw. Certain
species, such as the parrot, are
able to move both mandibles.
Lower mandibular tomia
The lower mandibular tomia is the
cutting edge of the lower mandible,
similar to the human teeth when
looking at the skull only.
Malar stripe
The malar stripe is the area below
the eye and bill and parallel to the
throat. It is located on the sides
of the chin and stretches downwards.
Generally, the malar stripe is
brightly colored. It is also called
whisker, mustache or malar streak.
Mandibular ramus
The mandibular ramus is the
prong-like projection from the bill
on the posterior side. It is not
present in all species.
Mantle
The mantle is the upper surface of
the back and wings covered with
shorter feathers. It is the area
what would be covered with a coat if
the bird were to wear one!
Marginal coverts
The marginal coverts are feathers
overlying the base of the median
secondary coverts and are also
called lesser secondary coverts or
shoulder. They are positioned at the
top edge of the wing closest to the
body of the bird.
Median line
For certain bird species, the median
line is the stripe along the very
top part of its head (through the
crown).
Median secondary coverts
The median secondary coverts are
feathers on the wing covering the
bases of the greater secondary
coverts. Their tips can often be a
slightly lighter colored or white,
giving the wing an illusion of being
horizontally "striped".
Mustache
The mustache is a colorful area on
each side of the chin moving down
the throat area. It is also called
malar streak or whisker.
Mouth
The mouth is similar in function to
the human mouth and refers to the
cavity bounded by the bill,
homologous to the human mouth. Many
bird species feed their young by
ingesting the food and regurgitating
it straight into the youngling's own
mouth.
Nape
The nape is the back of the neck
where the head joins the body. It is
also called the hindneck or collar
and is in the same relative location
as the human neck. The collar is
brightly colored in certain bird
species.
Nasal canthus
The nasal canthus is the inner
corner of the eye, the same location
as the corner of the human eye
closest to the nose. Nasal fossa
The nasal fossa is a depression in
which the bird’s nostril is located.
Generally, this area is located at
the top of the bill and can be seen
as two small punctures on the bill
surface.
Neck
The neck connects the head to the
body of the bird, homologous to the
human neck. Different species have
different neck lengths - the ostrich
has many vertebrae in his neck area,
while a hummingbird has
significantly and visibly less. The
neck allows the bird to move his
head to increase its visual area
without moving his body.
Neck patch
The neck patch is a sac located on
the neck that is inflatable and is
only visible in males during
courtship.. During courtship, the
male inflates this sac to impress
the female.
Nictitating membrane
The nictitating membrane is the
vertical semi-transparent fold under
the eyelid. This is also the third
eyelid of the bird and can be closed
for protection. It has its own
moisturizing system similar to tear
ducts. It can be closed to protect
the parent from their youngling’s
sharp beaks.
Nostril
The nostrils are the two small
punctures on the top of the bill.
Occiput
The occiput is the back portion of
the birds crown. From this location,
certain species adorn elongated
feathers. It is also called the
hindhead.
Operculum
The operculum is a smooth and
featherless patch of skin located
where the beak attaches to the
forehead of certain birds. It is
often enlarged and brightly colored
such as one can observe in pigeons,
parrots and birds of prey. It is
also called the cere.
Outer primaries
The outer primaries are the primary
feathers on the wing farthest from
the body. They often appear to be
the longest feathers on the wing.
Outer secondaries
The outer secondaries are the
secondary feathers of the wing
furthest away from the body.
Outer tail feathers
The outer tail feathers are the tail
feathers farthest from the center.
Many birds can “fan out” their tail
and the outer tail feathers are
those slightly shorter feathers that
fan out the furthest.
Outer wing
The outer wing encompasses the alula
and the primary feathers.
Patagial mark
The patagial mark is the dark patch
closer to the body than to the outer
edge of the wing underside when it
is spread. It is located at the top
of the wing closest to the head.
Pelagic
The pelagic is a type of bird whose
habitat are on the open ocean rather
than in a coastal region or on
inland bodies of water (lakes,
rivers). An example of a pelagic
bird is the blacklegged kittiwake
Pinnae
The Pinnae are elongated feathers
projecting from the upper body area,
generally the neck or head. In the
Prairie Chicken for example, the
males have longer pinnae than
females and they erect them during
courtship display.
Plumes
The plumes are large, conspicuous,
showy feathers that are not a good
survival adaptation from the
predator-prey point of view because
they make the bird much more
visible. However, plumes signal
health and virility to a potential
mate. As such males have more
elaborate plumes than females.
Primaries
The primaries are the flight
feathers specialized for flight.
They are attached to the "hand"
equivalent part of the wing.
Primary coverts
The primary coverts are shorter
feathers that cover and protect the
primary flight feathers.
Primary numbering
The primary numbering is a system
developed to assign numbers to each
primary feather for easier
identification.
Pupil
The pupil is the dark circular,
hollow passage in the middle of the
iris through which the light enters
the eye and forms an image on the
back of the eye.
Rectrices
The retrices are the backmost margin
of the tail formed by conspicuous.
Remiges
See primaries and secondaries.
Rictal bristles
The rictal bristles are the short
and stiff feathers near the bill.
Rictus
The rictus is the base of the bill
where the mandibles join. See also
gape and commissure.
Ruffs
The ruffs are a fringe of feather
growth on the neck of the bird. They
are also used to signal good health
and virility to potential mates.
Unhealthy birds will have less full
and less conspicuous ruffs.
Rump
The rump is the area between the
uppertail coverts and the back of
the bird. It consists of shorter
feathers of the same color as the
body.
Scapulars
The scapulars are short feathers in
the area where the bird’s back and
the wings join. They are generally
short, soft and the same color as
the back.
Secondaries
The secondaries are flight feathers
attached to the equivalent of the
human elbow. They come behind the
primaries in importance and location
when viewed from the outermost edge
of the wing.
Secondary coverts
The secondary coverts are the
feathers that cover and protect the
secondaries, and are attached to the
“elbow”.
Shoulder
The shoulder refers to the
relatively short feathers overlying
the median secondary coverts on the
top of the wing. They are located
near the back and can be seen as the
“first row” of feathers on the
bird’s wing. They are also called
marginal coverts and lesser
secondary coverts.
Side
The side is the area between the
belly, the wing and the back,. It is
equivalent to the area between the
human armpit and the hip bone.
Side of neck
The side of neck is the area between
the foreneck and hindneck. In
humans, it is the area under the ear
Spectacle
The spectacle refers to the
combination of the eye ring and
supraloral line.
Speculum
The speculum is the brightly colored
area on the wing (secondaries of the
wing) on several duck species.
Subterminal band
The subterminal band are the stripes
on the tails of certain birds. The
stripe is located just before the
tip
Superciliary line
The superciliary line is the arch of
feathers growing overtop the bony
arch of each eye in the same
approximate location as the human
eye brow. It is also called
supercilium or eyebrow.
Supercilium
The supercilium is used as a term to
describe the arch of feathers
growing overtop the bony arch of
each eye in the same approximate
location as the human eye brow. It
is also called superciliary line or
eyebrow.
Supraloral line
The supraloral line is the line
above the lore. In many species, it
is a brightly colored line between
the eye and the bill.
Tail
The tail comprises of long feathers
extending from the rear of the bird
and is used for balance and as an
asset to attract potential mates.
Certain species have extremely
elaborate tail feathers, such as
peacocks, which serve no other
purpose than to convey a positive
message to a female during
courtship.
Tail coverts
The tail coverts are the shorter
tail feathers covering the bases of
the long extending tail feathers.
Tail numbering
The tail numbering is a system
developed to assign a number to each
tail feather which can convey
certain characteristics about
certain species.
Tarsus
The tarsus is the part of the leg
between the knee and the foot of the
bird, equivalent homologous to the
lower leg in humans..
Temporal canthus
The temporal canthus is the outer
corner of the eye closest to the
ear.
Terminal band
The terminal band refers to the
bright stripe at the tip of the tail
in a deviating color from the rest
of the color scheme.
Tertiaries
The tertiaries are guill feathers
that are attached to the basal joint
of the wing of a bird. They are
located next to the secondaries.
Throat
The throat is similar to the human
throat and is located the front of
the neck. It is often called
jugulum, foreneck or throat patch.
Internally, it contains the main
food passage from the bird's bill to
its stomach as well as air passages
to the lungs.
Throat patch
The throat patch is similar to the
human throat and is located the
front of the neck. See also jugulum,
foreneck or throat. Internally it
contains the main food passage from
the birds bill to its stomach as
well as air passages to the lungs.
Tibia
The tibia is homologous to the human
upper leg and comprises the part of
the bird’s leg above the knee and
below the body.
Toe
The toes aredigits attached to the
feet just like human toes. Most
birds have four toes. The first toe
points backwards while the other
three toes point forward. The
second, third and fourth digits or
toes are counted from the inside of
the foot out and have 2, 3 and 4
phalanges respectively. Most birds
do not have a fifth toe, except for
some where it has evolved into a
defensive sput, such as in the
chicken
Trailing edge of wing
The trailing edge is the edge of the
wing seen when the wing is stretched
out in flight and viewing it from
the rear end of the bird. It is the
area where the edges of the feathers
are located, while the area where
the feathers are attached is termed
the leading edge of the wing.
Underparts
The underparts are those that can be
seen looking up at a bird during
flight - the belly, undertail
coverts, chest, flanks and foreneck.
Undertail coverts
The undertail coverts are feathers
in a triangular area on the
undersurface of a bird between its
vent and the base of its tail
feathers. One can tell whether a
bird is adult or juvenile by looking
at the undertail coverts: Adult
females tend to have conspicuous
dusky edging to most of the
feathers. Whereas juvenile females
tend to have nearly pure white
undertail coverts. They are also
called crissum.
Underwing
The underwing is the bottom side of
the wing. When the bird is
stationary, it is the side pressed
against the body and when the bird
is in flight, it is the side one can
see standing on the ground looking
up at the bird.
Upper mandible
The upper mandible is the upper part
of the bill. Most birds cannot move
their upper mandible, except for a
few species which can move both
mandibles independently, such as the
parrot.
Upper mandibular tomia
This is the cutting edge of the
upper mandible, similar to the human
teeth when looking at the skull
only.
Upperparts
The upperparts are those parts
visible when viewing a bird from the
top - the back, rump, hindneck,
wings and crown.
Uppertail coverts
The uppertail coverts are the
relatively shorter feathers covering
the upperside of the base of the
tail. They originate on the rump and
partially cover the tail giving it a
“layered” look.
Upperwing
The upperwing is the visible part of
the wing when looking at the bird
from a top view. It is the part of
the wing exposed when the bird is
stationary and has its wings pressed
against its body.
Vent
Birds do not have two separate
cavities for excrement and
reproduction like humans do. In
birds, there is one single
entrance/exit that suits both
functions called the vent, cloaca or
anus.
Whisker
The whisker is the area below the
eye and bill and parallel to the
throat. It is generally brightly
colored and located on the sides of
the chin stretching downwards. It is
also called mustache, malar stripe
or malar streak.
Wing
The wing is the feathered appendage
that allows a bird to fly. Strong
flight muscles are attached to the
wing such that the bird can lifts
its own bodyweight.
Wing bars
The wing bars make the bird's wing
look "striped". They are pale or
white tips of the greater and median
secondary coverts on the wings. From
a distance, it can be viewed as a
horizontally striped pattern making
the wing look layered.
Wing coverts
See also primary and secondary
coverts.
Wing lining
The wing lining is the relatively
shorter and softer median, lesser
and marginal coverts on the
underwing.
Wing stripe
The wing stripe is a paler area at
the base of the wing which is made
up of pale or white tips on the
flight feathers.
Wingpit
The wingpit is located between the
body and the wing of the bird,
homologous to the human armpit. The
area formally comprises also the
base of the underside of the wing,
extending to the ventral wing
lining. Muscles in the area are
heavily involved in flight. It is
also called axillary.
Wrist
The wrist refers to the base of the
primaries in the bird’s wing.
Although homologous in relative
location to the human wrist, the
bird wrist is not as flexible as the
human wrist. |
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